Scale of Covert and Overt Emotional Abuse (SOPAS) Test
How the Scales are Structured
Who Usually Takes This Test?
See How You Compare
Below is a preview of how scores are typically distributed across each scale.
Example Questions From the Test
- Never
- A couple of times
- Rarely
- Sometimes
- Often
- All the time
- Never
- A couple of times
- Rarely
- Sometimes
- Often
- Constantly
- Never
- A couple of times
- Rarely
- Sometimes
- Often
- Constantly
Scale of Covert and Overt Emotional Abuse (SOPAS) Test - Description and methodology of the test
People who are trying to make sense of controlling, belittling, or reality-distorting behavior in a close relationship may use the Scale of Covert and Overt Emotional Abuse (SOPAS) Test as a structured prompt for reflection. It focuses on recurring interpersonal experiences rather than isolated disagreements. An emotional abuse questionnaire of this kind can help organize observations before a person considers what support or boundaries may be appropriate.
What This Assessment Explores
Instead of reducing relationship difficulty to a single argument, the items examine behaviors that may erode autonomy, confidence, emotional security, and social connection. They ask about misleading, blame-shifting, guilt, criticism, possessiveness, restrictions, interference with interests, and pressure to doubt memory or emotional stability. A relationship abuse assessment helps organize recurring patterns that are otherwise hard to name.
These are the principal themes represented by the questions:
- Control and isolation concern limits on activities, outside contact, private time, or independent choices.
- Invalidation and humiliation cover criticism, dismissal, attacks on dignity, and weakened self-esteem.
- Blame and guilt describe shifting responsibility for another person's anger, hurtful actions, or relationship problems.
- Reality manipulation concerns disputed events or reactions that create doubt and insecurity.
Together, these themes represent the covert and overt manifestations that the scale quantifies across recurring interpersonal relationship experiences.
Methodology and Evidence Base
The sampled items use six frequency choices, generally moving from Never through intermediate options to Often and an upper choice such as Always or Constantly. Wording varies slightly, but the task is to report how often the described behavior occurs. This captures perceived frequency; it does not verify events or motives.
Results are shown as one combined Covert and Overt Emotional Abuse scale from 0-175. The bands are Low indications (0-58), Moderate indications (59-116), and High indications (117-175). Higher scores may indicate the presence of emotional abuse; no normative data are available for interpreting the result. The answer-to-point conversion should not be inferred from the range.
The questionnaire is conceptually consistent with SOPAS. Marshall's earlier work provides the closest published context for subtle and overt psychological abuse, while a later study by Jones and colleagues examined the scale's construct validity. The online form is not separately standardized by these sources. A psychological abuse scale based on self-report remains sensitive to memory, current circumstances, self-awareness, and interpretation; the result cannot by itself establish abuse, diagnosis, or intent.
- Marshall, L. L. (2001). The Subtle and Overt Psychological Abuse Scale (SOPAS). Unpublished manuscript, Department of Psychology, University of North Texas, Denton, TX.
- Marshall, L. L. (1999). Effects of men's subtle and overt psychological abuse on low-income women. Violence and Victims, 14(1), 69-88. 10.1891/0886-6708.14.1.69
- Jones, S., Davidson II, W. S., Bogat, G. A., Levendosky, A., & von Eye, A. (2005). Validation of the subtle and overt psychological abuse scale: An examination of construct validity. Violence and Victims, 20(4), 407-416. 10.1891/vivi.2005.20.4.407
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